A Brief Overview of the Contributions of AISL to ASL
by Damara Goff Paris, Sharon Kay wood and Katrina Miller
" American sign langauge belongs to the Deaf community. Traditionally, our sign language belongs to everybody, both deaf and hearing"--- Unknown
American Indian Sign Language (AISL) is an important part of the Native community. We would be remiss to not include several theories about the contribution of AISL to American Sign Language (ASL). We do not purport to be experts, and encourage the reader to research further, learning from various scholars of AISL. however, it s important to get a sense of the history behind AISL, which we have attempted to do in this article.
Approximately 60% of ASL is made up of a combination of existing natural sign languages in America, and the French methodical signing system that Louis Laurent Marie Clerc, known as Laurent Clerc (1785 - 1869), contributed when he came over from France in the 1800s. Where did the other 40 % come from? Is it possible that some of the sign languages of the Native American tribes became a part of American Sign Langauge?
AISL was in use long before ASL. Most non-native Americans view American Indians as one culture, with common cultureal bonds. Actually, each tribe had its own subculture, spiritual practices, family kinship, hierarchy, and concepts about the origins of the universe. They used AISL to communicate with other tribes who did not share a commone language, often for the purpose of bartering or storytelling. In addition, Europen traders and mountain men learned AISL in order to trade with the tribes.
Communication through gesture was useful to warriors in combat, givnig signs to each other oer a considerable distance in order to surprise the enemy. the hunt required a special means of communiation in order not to distubr the wary prey. During their hunting trips, American Indians encountered other tribes who were strangers to them. Because they did not speak the same language they developed sign language to communicate and to identify oneself as friendly or share tribal affiliatioins.
A six nations Chief, Disappearing Mist (also known as John Smoke Johnson Sakayenkwaraghton, (1792-1886) toldthe 19th century expert on AISL, Garrick Mallery, that Iroquois women and children had always used sign languages when in the preene of warriors and elders. Using their voices was considered disrespectful.
Delegatioins of Indians were occassional visitors to the Pennsylvania Institution for the Deaf in 1873, where they conversed with students and teachers in pantomine and ASL. They experienced no-difficulty understanding the sign langauge used by deaf students who in turn did have difficultury understanding that of the Indians.
AISL signs are usually broader in meaning than ASL. The signs are made against the background of the sky (toward nature), whereas ASL makes signs closer to the body. AISL can be read at a much greater distance than ASL. Uswers of AISL tend to us only one finger but with ASL , numberous signs are made by fingers alone. In ASL, one signs NO using more than one finger.
In general , AISL is used idiomatically to convey ideas. Beckoning with one's finger means COME while outward wave of the hands means GO. one "nods" the right iindex finger up and down to indicate YES while turning the right hand over means NO. Almost all signs in AISL are made with the right hand.
Unexposed to many of the diseases that caused deafness, deaf Indians were rare until the Europens comes to America and spread new diseases that wiped out large numbers of Indians. those who lost their hearing were almost indistinguishable in tribes where AISL was used frequently.
In discussing early sign influenes on signnig communities, one may compare the signing community that once existed on Martha's Vineyard to other signing communities such as the larger American Deaf Community where the deaf inhabitants stared moving off Martha's Vineyard island to attend the first permanent school for the deaf in American, established in Connecticut in 1817. One in every 150 person from the 1700s to the early 1900's, mostly in chilmark and West tisbury were deaf, and even the hearing people learned sign language. While we are able to present here some initial findings about American Indian Sign Language (MVSL, more research and analysis is needed. What is known, at this point, is that the Wampanoags (which means "eastern," or "people of the dawn") had already exchanged some spoken langauge and sign language with the pilgrims when they bartered, feasted, planted, and hunted. Theoretically, they could have blended some Indian sign langauge in with MVSL.
It is important to acknowledge the contributions of what is believeed to be the first American Indian woman who performed as an interpreter. In 1805, Sacajawea (1754-1815), also known as Sacagawea (Bird Woman) carried her six weeks old baby Jean- Baptiste in a cradle board strapped to her back and accompanied Captan Meriwether Lewis and Captain William lark by the order of Thomas Jefferson, President of the United States, on the expedition from St. Louis, Missouri, to the Pacific Ocean for two years.
Historically, Sacajawea had lived with her people of the Shosshoni (people who Live in the Valley) for 12 years, until one day she was taken away from her home by the Hidastas. Originally Sacajawea's father, who was the chief, named her Boinaiv, which meant "Grass Maiden," but after she was kidnaped by the Hidastas, renamed her Sacajawea. Sacajawea went from being a chief's daughter to being a slave.
She was sold into slavery to the Missouri River Mandans, who , in turn, sold her to a French-Canadian fur trader, Toussiant Charbonneau, who lived near Bismarck, North Dakota. Four years later, in 1804, Sacajawea was by thenCharbonneau's second wife and he brought her with him to accompany the Lewis Clark expedition as an interpreter. Mr Clark wanted to hire Sacajawea as an interpreter because she knew Shoshoni language. Charbonneau was engaged as a chief interpreter and guide, with the understanding that Sacajawea was to fascilitate several spoken languages (Shoshoni and Siouan) and Plains Indian Sign Language (PISL) between the tribes and the explorers.
Sacajawea translated Shoshoni into Hidatsa for her husband, who would then translate the communication into English for Lewis and Clark. When the language barriers were insurmountable, Sacjawea communicated with others by PISL. Sacajawea proved to be a valuable lisaison for the explorers.
Some claim she died in 1814, and others assert it was well after she interpreted at several councils from 1850 through the 1870's. Regardless, she is the first historically recognized female interpreter. Her sons Baptiste and Bazil, would also become iterpreters at Indian councils and on treaty-signing occasions.
The 1998-2002 Intertribal Deaf Council (IDC) president, Linda J. Carroll, recently issued a challenge to those working to preserve indigenous languages. She urged them not neglect native signed languages which may be the only language accessile for many American Indians who are deaf. She used examples of the famous Chief Sitting Bull, who had a deaf stepson, Mountain blue. He could communicate with any of his people and be anything he wanted to be, without an interpreter.
A Lakota Elder once stated, "The Wakan(Holy Ones) know all the languages, including sign. "Traditional signed languages need to be rebitalized, not forgotten. A historical collaboration between IDC, National Muilticultural Interpreter project (NMIP), and the American Indian Rehabilitation Research and Training Center (AIRRTC) from Northern Arizona University, resulted in the first ever Summer Institute for Sign Language interpreters working with American Indian and Alaska Native deaf communities. This course of study was held at the New Mexico School for the Deaf at Santa Fe in 1999.
IDC President Carroll states, "In Indian Sign Language, we have no words for help or rehabilitation. We can sign WORK-TOGETHER. Deaf natives want partners, not saviors, That's the Traditional way---- equality in the circle."
Despite the contributions of AISL, there are many differences between modern ASL and how AISL is used today. Additionally, there are differences in how Traditional First Nations deaf people, who do not use AISL, use pronouns, eye contact, facial markers and time markers. However some use ASL.
For the Navajo (Dine'), the custom is to not point at any person or object. Instead, the Navajo (Dine') purse their lips facing the person or object. In ASL, pointing is a common part of the grammatical structure of the language. Those unfamiliar with the Navajo (Dine') culture, might translate the pursed lips as I DO NOT CARE or SO WHAT. A misinterpretation of this method of "pointing" would label the user as someone with a negative attitude.
There are other differences, as well. In ASL, natural facial expressions express specific emotions. In Navajo (Dine'), they emphasize express specific emotions. In Navajo (Dine'), they emphasize customs, not emotions. Awareness of Navajo (Dine') taboos against using fingers to piont will increase one's ability to codeswitch effectively between ASL and AISL, as well as improve an intrpreter's ability to provide clear and accurate interpretation between AISL and ASL.
The most prevalent use of AISL in the U.S. comes from PISL. The pictures in the next few pages demonstrated by Mark Azure, are mostly signs used by the Plains Indians.
to learn more about the history and use of AISL from the prespectives of different tribes, you can check out these books and articles at your local library:
Bayton, D.C.(1996). Forbidden signs: American culture and the campaign against sign language, Chicago,IL: The Universityof Chicago Press.
Clark, W.P (1885). Indian sign langauge. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press-Bison Books.
Cody, I.E. (1970). Indian talk. Healburg, CA: Naturegraph.
Heinemann, S. (1996). Timlines of american women's history. New York: the Berkeley Publishing Group.
Indian Arts and Craft Board Members. (1930). Plains indian sign language: A memorial to the conference. Browning, MT: United States Department of the Interior.
Kelly, W.P., and MGregor, T.L. (2001). Kersean pueblo Indian sign language. orlando, FL: Deaf Studies VII Conference.
Mallery,G. (1879-1880), Sign Language among North Americans. Bureau of American Education Annual Report. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Insitution D.C.
McKay-Cody, M. (1997). Plains Indian sign language: A comparative study of alternative and primary signers. Master's Abstracts International,35(05), 1142.
Wurtzberg, S., & Campbell, L. (1995). North American Indian Sign Language: Evidence of its existence before European contact. International Journal of American Linguistics. 62(2), 153-167.
Moore M. and Panara, R.F. (1996). Great deaf Americans, Rochester N.Y.: Deaf Life Press.
Wissler, C. (1996). Iindians of the United States. New York: Doubleday Anchor.
For children or beginning AISL signers:
Liptak, K. (1990). North American Indian sign language. New York: Franklin Watts.
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